Reflection paper9 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflection paper9 - Essay Example es around that scenario, assessing how people would go on without oil, like transportation gets affected, the cost of oil rises, food gets affected and even schools are closed down. Thus, Jane’s focus is more on making people realize the value of things, which we take granted, and then to learn how to survive without those things. On the other hand, Brenda narrates a story, involving her daughter; Brenda asked her daughter about what she learned in school, and her daughter told her about the Middle Passage, but the way she explained her mother the historical event, it was like she didn’t grasp the true meaning of it. Thus, Brenda believes that video games can be used to illustrate historical events, so that children can better understand what they are learning at school and would be able to explain to others too. This is how different Jane and Brenda are, in their quest to change the world, with the help of games. This is a website, which is developed to help children and teachers learn subjects, through a different and attractive way. There are many subjects on this website like foreign language, music, language, arts and math. On this website, there are lectures for each of the subjects mentioned and the most interesting thing are the video lectures, which appeal to both the teacher and the student. There are animations found on the website, which are developed by experts and these animations have the ability to engage the audience. Thus, if teachers use these resources, then students would learn different concepts more easily and the visuals would also help them retain information. This website is a great tool for sharing ideas and changing attitudes of students, towards studies. There are conferences related to education on this website, it creates lessons which can be shared and there is a whole library of them on the website, consisting of resources and links. The most interesting thing here is that the user can share lectures and videos using social

Public administration Essay Example for Free

Public administration Essay ‘Ethics’ is a difficult term to define. The meaning, nature and scope of ethics have expanded in the course of time. ‘Ethics’ is integral to public administration. In public administration, ethics focuses on how the public administrator should question and reflect in order to be able to act responsibly. We cannot simply bifurcate the two by saying that ethics deals with morals and values, while public administration is about actions and decisions. Administering accountability and ethics is a difficult task. The 1 levels of ethics in governance are dependent on the social, economic, political, cultural, legal-judicial and historical contexts of the country. These specific factors influence ethics in public administrative systems. This Unit will discuss the meaning, evolution, foci and concerns of ethics. It will bring out the different dimensions of ethics and their relevance for public administration. The significance of an ethical code for administrators will be analysed and the nature of work ethics will be discussed. This Unit will also examine the obstacles to ethical accountability. 21. 2 ETHICS: MEANING AND RELEVANCE ‘Ethics’ is a system of accepted beliefs, mores and values, which influence human behaviour. More specifically, it is a system based on morals. Thus, ethics is the study of what is morally right, and what is not. The Latin origin of the word ‘ethics’ is ethicus that means character. Since the early 17th century, ‘ethics’ has been accepted as the â€Å"Science of morals; the rules of conduct, the science of human duty. † Hence, in common parlance, ethics is treated as moral principles that govern a person’s or a group’s behaviour. It includes both the science of the good and the nature of the right. The ethical concerns of governance have been underscored widely in Indian scriptures and other treatises such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvad Gita, Buddha Charita, Arthashastra, Panchatantra, Manusmriti, Kural, Shukra Niti, Kadambari, Raja Tarangani, and Hitopadesh. At the same time, one cannot ignore the maxims on ethical governance provided by the Chinese philosophers such as Lao Tse, Confucius and Mencius. In the Western philosophy, there are three eminent schools of ethics. The first, inspired by Aristotle, holds that virtues (such as justice, charity and generosity) are dispositions to act in ways that benefit the possessor of these virtues and the society of which he is a part. The second, subscribed to mainly by Immanual Kant, makes the concept of duty central to morality: human beings are bound, from a knowledge of their duty as rational beings, to obey the categorical imperative to respect other rational beings with whom they interact. The third is the Utilitarian viewpoint that asserts that the guiding principle of conduct should be the greatest happiness (or benefit) of the greatest number (Hobson, 2002). The Western thought is full of ethical guidelines to rulers, whether in a monarchy or a democracy. These concerns are found in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Penn, John Stuart Mill, Edmund Burke, and others. Rawl’s theory of justice revolves around the adaptation of two fundamental principles of justice, which would, in turn, guarantee a just and morally acceptable society. The first principle guarantees the right of each person to have the most extensive basic liberty compatible with liberty of others. The second principle states that social and economic positions are to be: (a) To everyone’s advantage, and (b) Open to all. A key issue for Rawls is to show how such principles would be universally adopted, and over here his work borders on general ethical issues. He introduces a theoretical ‘veil of ignorance’ in which all ‘players’ in the social game would be placed in a situation, which is called the ‘original position’. Having only a general knowledge about the facts of ‘life and society’ each player is to make a ‘rationally’ prudential choice concerning the kind of social institution they would enter into contract with. By denying the players any specific information about themselves it forces them to adopt a generalised point of view that bears a strong resemblance to the moral point of view. This view point revolves around moral conclusions can be reached without abandoning the prudential standpoint and posting a moral outlook merely by pursuing one’s own prudential reasoning under certain procedural bargaining. 2 The gist of wisdom on administrative ethics is that the public administrators are the â€Å"guardians† of the Administrative State. Hence, they are expected to honour public trust and not violate it. Two crucial questions raised in this context are â€Å"why should guardians be guarded? And â€Å"Who guards the guardian? † (Rosenbloom and Kravchuk, 2005). The administrators need to be guarded against their tendency to misconceive public interest, promote self-interest, indulge in corruption and cause subversion of national interest. And they need to be guarded by the external institutions such as the judiciary, legislature, political executive, media and civil society organisations. These various modes of control become instruments of accountability. 21. 3 EVOLUTION OF ETHICAL CONCERNS IN ADMINISTRATION It is essential to recognise that the discipline of Public Administration has been broadly influenced in the initial stages of its growth, by Political Science and the science of Management. While the philosophical premises of Public Administration were influenced primarily by Political Science, its technological facet was designed by Management Sciences. The early Political Science was taught as Moral Philosophy and Political Economy, while its current curriculum is the product of secular, practical, empirical and scientific tendencies of the past century. The American students of Political Science, in the early years of the last century, were dismayed at the inadequacies of the ethical approach in the Gilded Age. As a result of their interaction with the German universities and the influence on their thinking by scholars such as J. N Burgess, E. J. James, A. B Hart, A. L Lovell, and F. J Goodnow, they sought to recreate Political Science as a true science. They became increasingly interested in observing and analysing ‘actual governments’. Natural and Social Sciences substantially influenced their ideas and approaches. Later, Logical Positivism of the Austrian School influenced scholars such as Herbert Simon and thus there emerged a booming faith in developing a Science of Politics and a Science of Administration that would be able to `predict and control’ political and administrative life. As Dwight Waldo comments, the old belief that good government was the government of moral men was thus replaced by a morality that was irrelevant and that proper institutions and expert personnel were the determining factors in shaping good government. `The new amorality became almost a request for professional respect’. The eminence of Behaviouralism until the mid-1960s further marginalised the ethical issues in the study of Political Science and Public Administration. It was only after the advent of Post-behaviouralism in Political Science and of the accent on New Public Administration in Public Administration that the scientific methods of Behaviouralim and humanistic (read `ethical’) values struck a homogenous chord with administration and the dispute between facts and values was resolved substantially. The current discipline of public administration accords primacy to the `values’ of equity, justice, humanism, human rights, gender equality and compassion. The movement of Good Governance, initiated by the World Bank in 1992, lays stress, inter alia, on the ethical and moral conduct of administrators. While the New Public Management movement is more concerned with administrative effectiveness, the New Public Administration focuses on administrative ethics in its broader manifestation. Both the movements are complementary to each other. This complementarity of foci 3 is as truer today as it was a hundred years ago when the industrial world was experiencing the rise of Scientific Management amidst a strong acceptance of the notion of administrative responsibility. John Kennedy, during his Presidency (19611963) had averred: â€Å"No responsibility of government is more fundamental than the responsibility of maintaining the higher standards of ethical behaviour. The ideal-type construction of bureaucracy, propounded by Max Weber also highlighted an ethical imperative of bureaucratic behaviour. Weber (1947) observed: In the rational type, it is a matter of principle that the members of the administrative staff should be completely separated from ownership of the means of production and administration. Officials, employees and workers attached to the administrative staff do not themselves own the non-human means of production and administration†¦. These exists, furthermore, in principle complete separation of property belonging to the organisation, which is controlled within the sphere of office, and the personal property of the official, which is available for his own private uses†. Weber’s analysis underscores the need to prevent the misuse of an official position for personal gains. Although his ideal-type construct on bureaucracy is not empirical, yet it has an empirical flavour, for it appears to have taken into account the existential reality of bureaucratic behaviour. From a normative angle – knowing that Weber was not normative in his ideal type constructs – also, the message is clear: Don’t misuse official property for personal benefit. Most critics of real-world bureaucracies, including Harold Laski, Carl Friedrich, Victor Thompson and Warren Bennis, have criticised bureaucrats for violating the prescribed norms of moral conduct. Even Fred Riggs, while discussing the traits of a prismatic society like `formalism’ and ‘nepotism’ points out the yawning gap between the `ideal’ and the `real’ in administrative behaviour. The deviations from the norms and mores have been too glaring to be ignored. Immoral behaviour thus has become an integral component of `bureaupathology’ 21. 4 CONTEXT OF ETHICS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Ethics, whether in an entire society, or in a social sub-system, evolves over a long period of time and is influenced, during its nurturance and growth, by a variety of environmental factors. Administrative ethics is no different. It is the product of several contextual structures and it never ceases to grow and change. Let us now look at some of these contextual factors that influence ethics in the public administrative systems: The Historical Context The history of a country marks a great influence on the ethical character of the governance system. The Spoils System in the USA during the initial phase of the American nation vitiated the ethical milieu of the American Public Administration. â€Å"To victor belong the spoils† asserted American President Jackson. Things would have continued the same way had not a disgruntled job seeker assassinated President Garfield in 1881. Garfield’s assassination spurred the process of civil service reforms in the USA, and the setting up of the US. Civil Service Commission in 1883 was the first major step in this direction. India has witnessed a long history of unethical practices in the governance system. Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions a variety of corrupt practices in which the administrators of those times indulged themselves. The Mughal Empire and the Indian princely rule were also afflicted with the corrupt practices of the courtiers and 4 administrative functionaries, with ‘bakashish’ being one of the accepted means of selling and buying favours. The East India Company too had its share of employees who were criticised even by the British parliamentarians for being corrupt. The forces of probity and immorality co-exist in all phases of human history. Which forces are stronger depends upon the support these get from the prime actors of politico-administrative system. What is disturbing is that a long legacy of unethical practices in governance is likely to enhance the tolerance level for administrative immorality. In most developing nations having a colonial history, the chasm between the people and the government continues to be wide. In the colonial era, the legitimacy of the governance was not accepted willingly by a majority of population and therefore, true loyalty to the rulers was a rare phenomenon. Although the distance between the governing elite and the citizens has been reduced substantially in the transformed democratic regimes, yet the affinity and trust between the two has not been total even in the new dispensation. Unfortunately, even the ruling elite does not seem to have imbibed the spirit of emotional unity with the citizens. The legacy of competitive collaboration between the people and the administrators continues to exist. The nature of this relationship has an adverse impact on ‘administrative ethics’. The Socio-cultural Context Values that permeate the social order in a society determine the nature of governance system. The Indian society today seems to prefer wealth to any other value. And in the process of generating wealth, the means-ends debate has been sidelined. Unfortunately, ends have gained supremacy and the means do not command an equal respect. A quest for wealth in itself is not bad. In fact, it is a mark of civilisational progress. What is important is the means employed while being engaged in this quest. We seem to be living in an economic or commercial society, where uni-dimensional growth of individuals seem to be accepted and even valued, where ends have been subdued by means, and ideals have been submerged under the weight of more practical concerns of economic progress. Can we change this social order? Mahatma Gandhi very much wanted to transform the priority-order of the Indian society, but there were hardly any takers or backers of his radical thinking that was steeped in a strong moral order. To put it bluntly, ever since Gandhi passed away, there has been not a single strong voice in independent India challenging the supremacy of ‘teleology and unidimensionalism’. Neither have our family values questioned this unilinear growth of society nor has our educational system made serious efforts to inject morality into the impressionable minds of our youth. We have starkly failed on these fronts. The need is to evolve fresh perspectives on what kind of the Indians we wish to evolve and how? Till then, efforts will have to be focused on the non-social fronts. The issues of morality may or may not be rooted in the religious ethos of a society. Indian religious scriptures do not favour pursuit of wealth through foul means. Interestingly, Thiru Valluvar’s Kural, written two thousand years ago in Tamil Nadu, emphasises that earning wealth brings fame, respect and an opportunity to help and serve others, but it should be earned through right means only. Can this dictum form the basis of our socio-moral orientation? The level of integrity among Protestants and Parsees is believed by some to be relatively higher when compared to other religions and one can find the roots of such integrity in the well-ingrained mores of these religions. Nevertheless, it is only one point of view, as there are several other religious and secular groups, which are known for their high moral conduct. The cultural system of a country, including its religious orientation, appears to have played a significant role in influencing the work ethics of its people. For instance, the stress on hard work, so characteristic of the Protestant ethics, has helped several Christian societies to enhance their per capita 5 productivity. While Judaism has valued performance of physical labour by its followers, the Hindu and Islamic societies, on the other hand, have generally considered physical labour to be of lower rank than the mental work. Work ethics may or may not be linked with religious moorings. These are subjective issues but make for an interesting study. The family system and the educational system are influential instruments of socialisation and training of the mind in its impressionable years. If the values inculcated through the family and the school have underscored honesty and ethics, the impact on the mind-set of citizens is likely to be highly positive and powerful. Legal-judicial Context The legal system of a country determines considerably the efficacy of the ethical concerns in governance system. A neatly formulated law, with a clear stress on the norms of fair conduct and honesty, is likely to distinguish chaff from grain in the ethical universe. Conversely, nebulous laws, with confusing definition of corruption and its explanations, will only promote corruption for it would not be able to instill the fear of God or fear of law among those violating the laws of the land and mores of the society. Besides, an efficient and effective judiciary with fast-track justice system will prove a roadblock to immorality in public affairs. Conversely, a slow-moving judiciary, with a concern for letter rather than the spirit of the law, will dither and delay and even help the perpetrators of crimes by giving them leeway through prolonged trials and benefits of doubt. Likewise, the anti-corruption machinery of the government, with its tangled web of complex procedures, unintendedly grants relief to the accused who are indirectly assisted by dilatory and knotty procedures. In India, there is hardly any effective anticorruption institution. As we have read in Unit 7 earlier on in this Course, the Lok Pal is yet to be established, Lok Ayuktas are feeble and toothless agencies, while the state vigilance bodies are low-key actors. The consequences are too obvious to warrant any explanation. The Political Context The political leadership, whether in power or outside the power-domain, is perhaps the single most potent influence on the mores and values of citizens. The rulers do rule the minds, but in a democracy particularly, all political parties, pressure groups and the media also influence the orientation and attitudes on moral questions. If politicians act as authentic examples of integrity, as happens in the Scandinavian countries, or as examples of gross self-interest, as found in most South Asian countries, the administrative system cannot remain immune to the levels of political morality. The election system in India is considered to be the biggest propeller to political corruption. Spending millions on the elections `compels’ a candidate to reimburse his expenses through fair or foul means – more foul than fair. While fair has limits, foul has none. It is generally argued that the administrative class – comprising civil servants at higher, middle as well as lower levels – emerges from the society itself. Naturally, therefore, the mores, values and behavioural patterns prevalent in the society are likely to be reflected in the conduct of administrators. To expect that the administrators will be insulated from the orientations and norms evidenced the in society would be grossly unrealistic. The argument, propounded here, has a convincing logic, yet there can be a counterpoint that the rulers are expected to possess stronger moral fibre than the subjects. Since there are hardly any instrumentalities to protect and nurture administrative 6 morality vis-a-vis the general social morality, such an expectation remains at the most an elusive ideal. Hence, there is an obvious need to go deeper into the problem. The behaviour of politicians has a demonstration effect on civil servants. Besides, the capacity of the less honest political masters to control civil servants is immense. It is ironical that the moral environment in a country like India is designed more by its politicians than by any other social group. The primacy of the political over the rest of systems is too obvious to be ignored. If the media is objective and fearless, its role in preventing corruption can be effective. It can even act as a catalyst to the promotion of ethical behaviour among administrators. Hence, those who own and manage the media should understand their wider social and moral responsibilities. The trend in this direction is visible now with many television channels regularly airing their ‘expose’ on malpractices in the system. This role of the media is important if performed with intent of social responsibility rather than sensationalism. The Economic Context The level of economic development of a country is likely to have a positive correlation with the level of ethics in the governance system. Even when a causal relation between the two is not envisaged, a correlation cannot be ruled out. A lower level of economic development, when accompanied with inequalities in the economic order, is likely to create a chasm among social classes and groups. The less privileged or more deprived sections of society may get tempted to forsake principles of honest conduct while fulfilling their basic needs of existence and security. Not that the rich will necessarily be more honest (though they can afford to be so), yet what is apprehended is that the poor, while making a living, may find it a compelling necessity to compromise with the principles of integrity. It is interesting to note that with the advent of liberalising economic regime in developing nations, there is a growing concern about following the norms of integrity in industry, trade, management and the governance system on account of the international pressures for higher level of integrity in the WTO regime. This is what Fred Riggs would call `exogenous’ inducements to administrative change. 21. 5 ISSUE OF ETHICS: FOCI AND CONCERNS An important question arises in connection with the moral obligation of an administrative system. Is the administrative system confined to acting morally in its conduct or does it also share the responsibility of protecting and promoting an ethical order in the larger society? While most of the focus on administrative morality is on the aspect of probity within the administrative system, there is a need to consider the issue of the responsibility of the governance system (of which the administrative system is an integral part) to create and sustain an ethical ambience in the socioeconomic system that would nurture and protect the basic moral values. Moral political philosophy assumes that the rulers will not only be moral themselves, but would also be the guardians of morality in a society. Truly, being moral is a prerequisite to being a guardian of wider morality. Both the obligations are intertwined. It is a truism that the crux of administrative morality is ethical decision-making. The questions of facts and values cannot be separated from ethical decision-making. Thus, the science of administration gets integrated with the ethics of administration. And in this integrated regime, only that empirical concern is valued, which respects the normative concerns in the delivery of administrative services. 7 Which are the essential concerns in regard to administrative ethics? There can be a long list of values that are considered desirable in an administrative action. However, in being selective, one has to focus on the most crucial values. Let us now concentrate on the values of justice, fairness and objectivity. Woodrow Wilson, â€Å"The Study of Administration† (1887), in his inaugural address averred that justice was more important than sympathy. Thus, he placed justice at the top of value-hierarchy in a governance system. Paradoxically, there has been a lot of discussion on the formallegal aspects of administrative law since then, but very little analysis has been made of the philosophical dimension of administrative justice. The other two issues of ethical decision-making, viz. fairness and objectivity are, in fact, integral components of administrative justice. When administrators are true to their profession, they are expected to be impartial and fair and not get influenced by nepotism, favoritism and greed while making decisions of governance. Objectivity should not be misconstrued as a mechanical and rigid adherence to laws and rules. From the decision-making angle, it has undoubtedly wider ramifications encompassing a set of positive orientations. Currently, the notion of ethics has expanded itself to involve all major realms of human existence. Let us attempt to outline certain salient aspects of ethics in public administration. Broadly, they could be summarised as following maxims: †¢ Maxim of Legality and Rationality: An administrator will follow the law and rules that are framed to govern and guide various categories of policies and decisions. Maxim of Responsibility and Accountability: An administrator would not hesitate to accept responsibility for his decision and actions. He would hold himself morally responsible for his actions and for the use of his discretion while making decisions. Moreover, he would be willing to be held accountable to higher authorities of governance and even to the people who are the ultimate beneficiaries of his decisions and actions. Maxim of Work Commitment: An administrator would be committed to his duties and perform his work with involvement, intelligence and dexterity. As Swami Vivekananda observed: â€Å"Every duty is holy and devotion to duty is the highest form of worship. † This would also entail a respect for time, punctuality and fulfillment of promises made. Work is considered not as a burden but as an opportunity to serve and constructively contribute to society. Maxim of Excellence: An administrator would ensure the highest standards of quality in administrative decisions and action and would not compromise with standards because of convenience or complacency. In a competitive international environment, an administrative system should faithfully adhere to the requisites of Total Quality Management. Maxim of Fusion: An administrator would rationally bring about a fusion of individual, organisational and social goals to help evolve unison of ideals and imbibe in his behaviour a commitment to such a fusion. In situation of conflicting goals, a concern for ethics should govern the choices made. Maxim of Responsiveness and Resilience: An administrator would respond effectively to the demands and challenges from the external as well as internal environment. He would adapt to environmental transformation and yet sustain the ethical norms of conduct. In situations of deviation from the prescribed ethical norms, the administrative system would show resilience and bounce back into the accepted ethical mould at the earliest opportunity. 8 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Maxim of Utilitarianism: While making and implementing policies and decisions, an administrator will ensure that these lead to the greatest good (happiness, benefits) of the greatest number. Maxim of Compassion: An administrator, without violating the prescribed laws and rules, would demonstrate compassion for the poor, the disabled and the weak while using his discretion in making decisions. At least, he would not grant any benefits to the stronger section of society only because they are strong and would not deny the due consideration to the weak, despite their weakness. Maxim of National Interest: Though universalistic in orientation and liberal in outlook, a civil servant, while performing his duties, would keep in view the impact of his action on his nation’s strength and prestige. The Japanese, the Koreans, the Germans and the Chinese citizens (including civil servants), while performing their official roles, have at the back of their mind a concern and respect for their nation. This automatically raises the level of service rendered and the products delivered. Maxim of Justice: Those responsible for formulation and execution of policies and decisions of governance would ensure that respect is shown to the principles of equality, equity, fairness, impartiality and objectivity and no special favours are doled out on the criteria of status, position, power, gender, class, caste or wealth. Maxim of Transparency: An administrator will make decisions and implement them in a transparent manner so that those affected by the decisions and those who wish to evaluate their rationale, will be able to understand the reasons behind such decisions and the sources of information on which these decisions were made. Maxim of Integrity: An administrator would undertake an administrative action on the basis of honesty and not use his power, position and discretion to serve his personal interest and the illegitimate interests of other individuals or groups. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ There could be many more tenets added to the above catalogue of maxims of morality in administration. However, the overall objective is to ensure ‘Good Governance’ with a prime concern for ethical principles, practices, orientations and behaviour. There are no dogmas involved in defining administrative ethics. The chief concern while doing so is the positive consequence of administrative action and not just ostensibly rational modes of administrative processes. In the following Section, a few of the salient concerns and foci of ethics are being dealt with briefly. 21. 6 PERTINENCE OF CODE OF ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS. The concept of ethics has been a latecomer in the realm of public administration. For too long, doing one’s duty well was considered to be an equivalent of bureaucratic ethics. Interestingly, in the United States, the original city managers’ and federal code of ethics placed notable stress on efficiency as ethical concept. In the early 20th century, the perspective began to change. In 1924, the International City/Country Management Association adopted the public sector’s first code of ethics that reflected anti-corruption and anti-politics facets of the municipal reforms movement. 9. In 1958, the US Congress imposed a code of ethics on the Federal Government and in 1978, founded the Office of Government Ethics as an upshot of the Ethics in Government Act of 1978. In 1992, the Office of Government Ethics released the Federal Government’s first comprehensive set of standards of ethical conduct, comprising standards pertaining to gifts, conflicts of financial interest, impartiality, misuse of office, seeking outside employment, and outside activities. Almost all the American states have also promulgated their respective codes of ethics, though compared to the federal initiative, they are less comprehensive. Today, codes of ethics, ethics boards, and ethics training have been accepted as integral aspects of public administration in the U. S. Moreover, ethics education has also permeated the discipline of public administration. The National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Public Administration has made ethics education a required component of a Public Administration Programme for its accreditation and has prescribed that all introductory text-books in public administration should include a discussion on ethics (Browman, Berman and West, 2001). Eminent professional associations of public administration also offer training programmes on ethical conduct for public managers. In India, there are a few training programmes on administrative ethics offered by the Indian Institute of Public Administration and other institutions for civil servants, but there is hardly any similar initiative taken up in the realm of education in Public Administration. The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) had adopted in 1984 a Code of Ethics for its members (comprising intellectuals as well as practicing administrators). It was revised in 1994. Certain salient points of the ASPA’s Code of Ethics are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Exercise of discretionary authority to promote public interest Recognition and support to the public’s right to know the public business Exercise of compassion, benevolence, fairness and optimism Prevention of all forms of mismanagement of public funds by establishing and maintaining strong fiscal and management controls, by supporting audits and investigative activities Protection of Constitutional principles of equality, fairness, representativeness, responsiveness and due process in protecting citizens’ rights Maintenance of truthfulness and honesty and not to compromise them for advancement, honour, or personal gain Guarding zealously against conflict of interest or its appearance: e. g. nepotism, improper ou.

Almost the Wrestling State Champion :: Memoir Essays

Almost the Wrestling State Champion      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There he was, standing one step above me on the platform. He was wearing his maroon colored warm-ups and holding the bracket that the champion always wins. Over the school's announcement system I could hear the announcer saying, "In second place from Hotchkiss, Derek Blitz, and your champion at 103 pounds, from SoRoCo, Josh Deaver." I just stood there hanging my head wondering why he was getting the first place medal and I wasn't. After all, I had worked hard in practice, but in the end I couldn't pull off the win. Now I could only mope around knowing that I had almost won and continue replaying the match over and over again in my head.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On Monday of the week before the tournament, I lost my varsity position in a close challange match. Once that happened, I started to go through the practices without any intensity. All week I was acting like I was practicing as hard as I could, but I was really only putting in enough effort to make sure we didn't have a harder conditioning than normal. Since I had lost my varsity position, I had it stuck in my head that there was no reason to practice very hard. After all, I was going to be wrestling on JV.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On Friday, the coaches told us to be at the high school by 6:15 the next morning, so that we could make it to Paonia for weigh-ins at 7:00. The next morning I arrived at the high school by 6:00, and then I went into the locker room to make sure that I hadn't forgotten anything. By the time we arrived at Paonia, it was almost time for weigh-ins. A referee walked out into the gym and called all 103 pounders to the wrestling room. I walked up to the scale where two other refs were waiting to make sure no one had long nails or ring worm. Next, I proceeded to step on the scale to see if I would make weight. The ref, who was at the scale, then said, "102 pounds, step off." A huge feeling of relief swept over me, and I soon realized that I was going to give 110% to wrestling that day.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At about 9:00, the tournament began and I was on the first open mat against the 103 pounder from Middle Park. I looked over my opponent and said to myself, "I am going to win this match.

Private Versus Public Indonesian Schools Health And Social Care Essay

Besides [ 2 ] , there is another paper that investigated the effectivity of private and public junior secondary schools in the Indonesian context. [ 8 ] studied the relationship between school pick and academic public presentation alternatively of school pick and future net incomes. [ 8 ] found that the academic public presentation of public junior secondary schools pupils was higher than private school pupils as measured by national concluding trial test tonss ( UN[ 1 ]) upon completion of junior secondary school. Therefore, contrary to Bedi and Garg, [ 8 ] believe that public junior secondary schools are more effectual than private junior secondary schools. [ 8 ] besides doubt that the positive consequence of private schools could outweigh the high quality of public schools ‘ input quality. This paper presents a re-examination of Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisal on differential net incomes of public and private junior secondary school pupils, which is the nucleus of their empirical analysis. Using Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations set, I obtained contradictory consequences to them. I found that their decision is biased and misdirecting. I am besides concerned about the usage of some placeholders of school quality indexs in Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes theoretical account. Bedi and Garg used three variables that do non specifically demo the quality of junior secondary schools. Alternatively, Bedi and Garg use variables that show the status of the last school attended. Hence, it may be either a junior or a senior secondary school. I believe the used of inappropriate placeholders of school quality may bias the cogency of Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes derived function. Last but non least, Bedi and Garg used the individual imputation of average permutation to get the better of the losing information. I believe this attack may skew the findings. I used the up-to-date MICE ( multiple imputation by chained equations ) attack to handle the losing value job. Using MICE, I besides found contradictory consequences to Bedi and Garg ‘s as the public school alumnuss net incomes are higher than private non spiritual school alumnuss.2 Sample ReplicationThe first measure used to retroflex Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) was to make an indistinguishable information set to Bedi and Garg ‘s. Bedi and Garg use the Indonesia Family Life Survey 1 ( IFLS1 ) 1993 to gauge the effectivity of private and public schools in Indonesia. The IFLS1 is a large-scale longitudinal observation of single and household degree on socioeconomic and wellness study. The IFLS1 trying strategy was based on states, so the samples were indiscriminately selected within states. Due to cost- effectiveness the study had took merely 13 out of 26 states on the Island of Java, Sumatra, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi. They were selected to stand for about 83 per centum of the Indonesian population. In 2000, RAND as the major manufacturer of IFLS published the 3rd moving ridge of IFLS, so called IFLS3. Harmonizing to the RAND web site, the populace usage files and certification of IFLS4 should be ready by early 2009. Bedi and Garg do non explicate the ground they merely use the first moving ridge. However, I assume that Bedi and Garg do non utilize IFLS2 and IFLS3 as the research was conducted before the IFLS3 was publically released. Despite Rand has printing IFLS2 in 1997, the moving ridge does non incorporate employment informations that consists of net incomes and the figure of hours worked informations[ 2 ] [ htbp ] Comparison of Exclusion ProcessItemBedi and Garg ( 2000 )Fahmi*Initial income information 4900 7220 Had non proceeded beyond primary instruction 3391 5448 Had more than 12 old ages of instruction 291 274 Lack of information on hours of work 33 37 Missing information on school type 10 13 Reported incomes seemed incredibly high 3 9 Missing information on category size–41 Attend ( erectile dysfunction ) school more than 12 month ( miscoded )–45 Missing information on failed in primary school–1 Missing information on male parent ‘s instruction–214 Missing information on female parent ‘s instruction–80 Missing information on school location–6 Missing information on faith–2 Number of staying observation 1194 1050 * ) The Exclusion stairss follows Bedi and Grag ( 2000 ) and another exclusion procedure can alter the consequence. I created a sample informations based on Bedi and Garg ‘s counsel ( pages 467-468 ) . However, I failed to reproduce Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations even though I merged all necessary files and cleaned the informations right. My initial sample informations set consisted of 7220 respondents who have net incomes and are no longer pupils. The size of the initial information was about twice Bedi and Garg ‘s initial sample informations with 4900 observations. Missing and miscoded informations and besides sample limitations reduced the information set by 6170 ( more than 85 per centum ) to 1050 observations. Most of the observations, 5448, were dropped as they had non proceeded beyond primary school, while 274 observations were dropped since they had more than 12 old ages instruction. Furthermore, I dropped 13 respondents due to losing information on the school type and 9 observations as they had either 99997 or 999997 on entire monthly net incomes. Finally, I exclud ed the staying 389 observations as they had either losing information, miscoded category size ( 41 observations ) , figure of months in school period per twelvemonth ( 45 ) , failed in primary school ( 1 ) , parents ‘ instruction ( 294 ) , state where school is located ( 6 ) , and faith ( 2 ) . Table 1 nowadayss the full comparing of the exclusion procedure. Bedi and Garg used the IFLS1 issued by RAND in 1996 ( DRU-1195-CD ) . On the other manus, I used the IFLS1 information set called IFLS1-RR ( re-release ) that updates the original IFLS1. [ 9 ] explains that IFLS1-RR revisions and restructures the original IFLS1 to attach to with IFLS2. The different construction of IFLS1 ‘s DRU-1195-CD and IFLS1-RR perchance causes the mismatch between my sample informations and Bedi and Garg ‘s. Bedi kindly sent the sample informations set, PUBPRIV.DTA[ 3 ]. Bedi and Garg create the file on 7 February 1998 which consists of 1527 observations and 231 variables. However, Bedi and Garg did non direct the do-file[ 4 ]. Therefore, I can non track the building of sample informations. I tracked the difference of the sample informations sets by comparing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample that consists of 1194 observations with my 1050 observations. I can fit Bedi and Garg ‘s sample by 745 observations. Of the staying 449 observations, 17 observations are unidentified and 305 are considered as losing information. On the other manus, Bedi and Garg ‘s sample does non incorporate 305 observations from my sample informations despite those observations do non hold losing informations. Of the 305 observations losing informations, 34 observations have no information on the figure of months in a twelvemonth go toing school and 32 observations have no information on category size. Bedi and Garg substitute the losing informations on those observations by utilizing a sample average alternatively of dropping the figure of observations. The staying 214 observations have no information on either male parent ‘s or female parent ‘s instruction. Bedi and Garg put â€Å" 0 † value on those observations alternatively of dropping them. Despite Bedi and Garg explicating the major exclusion procedure, they do non indicate out the permutation procedure on the 305 observations. On the other manus, I provide the sketch of the tracking procedure in Table 1. I present the complete comparing of drumhead statistics between Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations and my sample informations from IFLS1-RR in Table 2. [ T ] Table 1: Tracking Process of Mismatch Sample DataNo.NoteObs.745 Identical 17 Unidentified 152 Had more than 12 old ages instruction 34 – Missing information on period of school in months. – Bedi and Garg substitute the losing informations by sample mean. 32 – Missing information on category size. – Bedi and Garg substitute the losing informations by sample mean. 154 – Missing information on male parent instruction. – Bedi and Garg put â€Å" 0 † , alternatively of losing value in three silent person variable male parent of instruction. – Three variables of male parent instruction are FATH_PRI and FATH_JH and FATH_SH. 60 – Missing information on female parent instruction. – Bedi and Garg put â€Å" 0 † , alternatively of losing value in two dummy variables of female parent instruction. – Two variables of female parent instruction are MOTH_PRI and MOTH_SEC. Since my sample informations does non fit with Bedi and Garg ‘s sample, I can non reproduce all Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisal consequences. However, I continued the remainder of the appraisals by utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample. Using Bedi and Garg ‘s sample I can retroflex Table 1 and 2 in Bedi and Garg ‘s paper. Table 1 in Bedi and Garg ‘s paper presents the descriptive statistics of all variables whereas Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics by type of school. I could retroflex the consequence of the coefficients on polynomial logit appraisal in Table 3. However, I could non fit the consequence on fringy effects of explanatory variables. Technically, I generated the consequence utilizing mlogit and mfx2 faculty on stata. I present the consequence on polynomial logit appraisal in Table 8 in appendix.VariableBedi and Garg ( 2000 )Fahmi( R ) 2-5MeanStd. DevMeanStd. Dev— ContinuedVariableBedi and Garg ( 2000 )Fahmi( R ) 2-5MeanStd. DevMe anStd. DevContinued on Following Page†¦ LOGEARN -0.202 1.079 -0.290 1.063 EARN 1.492 2.567 2.030 17.655 Age 34.66 7.502 34.264 7.321 Junior 0.307 0.462 0.415 0.493 Senior 0.521 0.499 0.527 0.500 Male 0.672 0.469 0.689 0.463 Indonesian 0.404 0.491 0.370 0.483 HIN_BUD 0.066 0.248 0.074 0.262 Jesus 0.091 0.289 0.092 0.290 PRI_FAIL 0.204 0.403 0.208 0.406 Scholar 0.048 0.215 0.040 0.196 FATH_PRI 0.422 0.494 0.521 0.500 FATH_JH 0.101 0.302 0.113 0.317 FATH_SH 0.085 0.279 0.084 0.277 MOTH_PRI 0.380 0.485 0.470 0.499 MOTH_SEC 0.109 0.312 0.094 0.292 DIRT FLOOR 0.067 0.251 0.044 0.205 Class Size 36.47 9.301 36.651 8.884 Calendar months 9.459 1.849 9.638 1.710 OTH_PR 0.023 0.148 0.031 0.175 SKALI_ED 0.043 0.204 0.036 0.187 NSUMA_ED 0.106 0.308 0.097 0.296 WSUMA_ED 0.068 0.253 0.049 0.215 SSUMA_ED 0.051 0.220 0.052 0.223 LAMP_ED 0.023 0.151 0.027 0.161 EJAVA_ED 0.120 0.325 0.135 0.342 WJAVA_ED 0.139 0.346 0.131 0.338 CJAVA_ED 0.141 0.348 0.155 0.362 BALI_ED 0.048 0.215 0.058 0.234 NTB_ED 0.042 0.200 0.056 0.230 YOGYA_ED 0.067 0.251 0.065 0.246 SSULA_ED 0.042 0.202 0.038 0.192 JAKAR_ED 0.079 0.270 0.069 0.253 URBAN 0.708 0.455 0.670 0.470 SKALMNT 0.043 0.204 0.050 0.219 NSUMATRA 0.098 0.297 0.084 0.277 WSUMATRA 0.066 0.250 0.045 0.207 SSUMATRA 0.053 0.225 0.057 0.232 EJAVA 0.103 0.304 0.117 0.322 WJAVA 0.131 0.338 0.125 0.331 CJAVA 0.088 0.284 0.098 0.298 Bali 0.054 0.226 0.068 0.251 NTB 0.042 0.202 0.057 0.232 LAMPUNG 0.029 0.168 0.034 0.182 YOGKARTA 0.067 0.251 0.065 0.246 SSULAWES 0.042 0.202 0.040 0.196 Jakarta 0.176 0.381 0.160 0.367 Number of Sample 1194 1050 Table 2: Comparison of Descriptive Statistics Table 3 nowadayss the consequences on fringy consequence after polynomial logit appraisal. All Bedi and Garg ‘s fringy effects are different to my consequences. The marks on the coefficient of fringy effects in my consequences contradict Bedi and Garg ‘s consequences. Those coefficients are MOTH_SEC in private non spiritual and public appraisals, HIN_BUD in private Islam school, FATH_JH in private Islam school, and FATH_PRI in private Christian school. The differences may bespeak that Bedi and Garg used different techniques or faculties in gauging fringy consequence after polynomial logit. I used the the stata ‘s faculty mfx2 that suggested by [ 13 ] . [ 13 ] argues that mfx2 likely the most utile after multiple-outcome appraisals such as mlogit. On the other manus, Bedi and Garg do non advert the faculty or stata bid in the fringy consequence appraisal. Table 3: Fringy Effectss AppraisalsVariablePublicPrivate NRPrivate IsPrivate Ch2-9BediFahmiBediFahmiBediFahmiBediFahmiandandandandGargGargGargGargMale -0.0154 -0.005 -0.0259 -0.002 -0.0253 -0.005 0.0667 0.012 Indonesian -0.0345 -0.006 -0.0244 -0.001 0.0441 0.006 0.0147 0.001 Hin_bud 0.1983 0.003–-0.005 0.2817 0.123 -0.4819 -0.121 Jesus 0.0318 0.062 -0.2304 -0.029 0.2371 0.291 -0.0385 -0.323 Pri_fail 0.0897 0.017 -0.0304 -0.001 -0.0196 -0.002 -0.0397 -0.014 Fath_pri 0.0348 0.007 0.0171 0.001 -0.0028 0.001 -0.0548 -0.010 Fath_jh -0.0183 -0.004 0.0022 -0.000 -0.0289 -0.004 0.0450 0.008 Fath_sh -0.0048 -0.006 -0.0680 -0.003 -0.0752 -0.008 0.1481 0.017 Moth_pri -0.0147 -0.006 -0.0413 -0.002 -0.0293 -0.005 0.0854 0.013 Moth_sec 0.0139 -0.001 -0.0387 -0.002 -0.0390 0.008 0.0638 -0.005 Nitrogen 221 133 73 767 [ parity ] Bedi and Garg= [ 2 ] . Fahmi=Fahmi ‘s appraisal utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample. Public is public school. Private NR is private not spiritual. Private Is is private Islam. Private Ch is Private Christan and other.3 Selectivity VariablesBedi and Garg include the selectivity variables in the net incomes appraisals and the net incomes decompositions. Bedi and Garg argue that in Indonesia, the junior secondary school sorting is a consequence of parental pick and choice standards that in some instance may implement by the school. In doing the determination, Bedi and Garg assume that parents evaluate the benefits of go toing each peculiar school and they face four available school types, public, private non-religious, private Islamic and private Christian schools. The school screening that is based on choice standards is most likely true for public secondary school as they require a certain degree of concluding trial tonss before accepting the pupils. Bedi and Garg besides suggest that school sorting may non be exogenic and the pupil who has higher ability may be more likely to come in public secondary schools. Bedi and Garg used two-stage appraisal suggested by [ 5 ] to get the better of the selectivity prejudice job. To gauge the net incomes appraisal, Bedi and Garg ab initio used a polynomial logit theoretical account to bring forth the selectivity rectification term. In the 2nd measure, Bedi and Garg estimated the net incomes equations and included the selectivity variables or the opposite of Mill ‘s ratio ( lambda ) to the equations. The coefficient on lambda measures the consequence of non-random screening single, while either the positive or negative mark indicates the nature of choice. The negative coefficient indicates that unseen variables that influence school pick are negatively correlated with unseen variables that determine net incomes. Bedi and Garg compared the consequences of OLS decompositions and two measure decompositions to demo the consequence of choice prejudice on the theoretical account. Despite Bedi and Garg utilizing the two measure method used in many surveies on school effectivity, I am concerned about the consequences of Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisals on selectivity variables and decompositions with selectivity prejudice. To verify the consequences, I re-estimated the polynomial logit equation utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘ sample informations set that derived from PUBPRIV.dta. I used the two-step technique proposed by [ 3 ] . [ 3 ] created selmlog as a faculty in STATA on choice prejudice rectification when choice is specified as a polynomial logit. I used Lee ‘s method in selmlog option, since Bedi and Garg used Lee ‘s two-step method to gauge the theoretical account. The Comparison of Selectivity Variable ( )School TypeBedi and Garg ( 2000 )Bedi and Garg ‘s sampleand Fahmi computation2-5 t-stat. t-stat. Public -0.089 ( -0.310 ) 0.104 ( 0.370 ) Private Non Religious -0.848** ( -2.384 ) 0.895** ( 1.990 ) Private Islam 0.073 ( 0.120 ) 0.259 ( 0.330 ) Private Christian 0.031 ( 0.272 ) -0.666* ( -1.75 ) [ parity ] [ 1 ] * = P & lt ; 0.1, ** = P & lt ; 0.05, *** = P & lt ; 0.01 Table 3 presents the comparing of selectivity variables. Using Bedi and Garg sample informations, the consequences show positive selectivity for public schools, private non-religious schools, and private Islam schools and negative choice into private Christian schools. The coefficient in private non-religious school and private Christian school equation are statistically important. This consequences contradict Bedi and Garg ‘s consequences. In Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisals, negative selectivity exists in public and private non spiritual groups, whereas positive selectivity nowadayss in private Islam and private Christian schools. The coefficient lambda is important merely in private non-religious school appraisal. The coefficient on the selectivity variable of public schools in Bedi and Garg ‘s is -0.089, whereas in my consequence it is 0.104. In private non spiritual schools and private Christian schools, Bedi and Garg ‘s are -0.848 and 0.031, while in my conse quences are 0.895 and -0.666. In private Islam appraisal, Bedi and Garg ‘s is 0.073 while in my consequence is 0.259. I present the full comparing of the two measure appraisals in Tables 9, 10, 11, and 12. Bedi and Garg point out that the negative coefficient on lambda was statistically important in private non spiritual school appraisal. Bedi and Garg used this determination to back up their statement that the strong negative choice consequence in private non-religious school reversed the public and private non-religious school advantage. However, utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations set, I found that the mark of in private non spiritual is positive. The positive and important coefficient on lambda implies that a non-participant type in private non spiritual group will be given to hold higher net incomes. Non participant-type in private non spiritual schools are pupils from high socio economic sciences background. From the consequence of school screening in Table 3, pupils whose parents do non hold secondary instruction most likely attend private not spiritual schools. Therefore, the non participant type or the sub-sample of private non spiritual school are pupils whos e parents have high instruction or have high socio economic background. The negative mark on the selectivity variable in private Christian school implies that pupils from non-participant types in these group will be given to hold lower net incomes. Intuitively, pupils from low socio economic sciences backgrounds who study in private Christian schools will be given to hold lower net incomes.4 Net incomes DecompositionBedi and Garg used the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition to gauge net incomes differential between public school and private school alumnuss. Bedi and Garg used the double decomposition that included some non-discriminatory coefficient vectors to find the part of the spread in the forecasters. Harmonizing to [ 10 ] , the two fold decomposition can be written as ( 1 ) where the inferior refers to the public schools group and the inferior refers to private schools groups. is the the natural logarithm of single net incomes. is a vector of ascertained features and is a vector of coefficients on ascertained features. is the individuality matrix and is a diagonal matrix of weights. Now the double decomposition is ( 2 ) where is the net incomes difference. The first constituent, , is the net incomes derived function that is â€Å" explained † by group differences in the forecasters. The first difference is besides known as measure consequence. The 2nd portion, is the â€Å" unexplained † portion. is the differences caused by favoritism and unseen variables. Bedi and Garg follow [ 10 ] who used the average coefficients between the low and the high theoretical account or. Reimers believes that the favoritism in in labor market could impact the net incomes of either the bulk or minority group. Therefore, Reimers suggests that the diagonal of D ( matrix of weights ) should be 0.5 to avoid the incompatibility in decomposition consequence. I re-estimated the Blinder-Oaxaca decompositions on Bedi and Garg ‘s ascertained net incomes differential utilizing Oaxaca. Oaxaca[ 5 ]that created by [ 4 ] , is a STATA technique which allows gauging the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition net incomes derived functions in one bid[ 6 ]. I present the comparing of the reproduction on the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition in Tables 4 and 4. Table 6 presents the comparing of net incomes differential utilizing OLS appraisal as the appraisal does non include the selectivity variable. The consequences of Bedi and Garg and my appraisal utilizing Bedi and Garg sample informations are similar. Despite some differences in the 3rd denary values, the consequences could be considered as minimally different. The consequences suggest that Bedi and Garg ‘s computation and my technique, utilizing Jann ‘s Oaxaca, produced similar end products. However, Bedi and Garg do non supply the standard mistakes or statistical trials for the difference. Harmonizing to [ 4 ] , merely a few surveies on the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition are concerned about the issue of statistical illation. Jann argues that statistical illation in the decomposition consequences is necessary to bring forth equal reading. In general, my computations on Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition are similar with Bedi and Garg ‘s. However, there are some differences in the 3rd figure in some denary Numberss. For case, Bedi and Garg ‘s entire log net incomes derived function between public and private non spiritual is 0.316 whereas in my consequence the spread is 0.318. The consequences of Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes decompositions should be treated with cautiousness because of two factors. First, Bedi and Garg do non supply the t-statistics or the standard mistakes of the difference. Second, the choice prejudice could hold appeared in the net incomes appraisals. Table 3 shows that the choice prejudice occurs in private non spiritual school and private Christian school appraisals. Therefore, the net incomes derived function in Table 4 on those two groups are biased. The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( OLS )Type ofBedi and Garg ( 2000 ) aFahmib2-8 School Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious 0.316 0.162 0.154 0.318*** 0.163*** 0.155** ( 0.086 ) ( 0.054 ) ( 0.078 ) Private Islam 0.311 0.254 0.057 0.309*** 0.254*** 0.055 ( 0.117 ) ( 0.077 ) ( 0.113 ) Private Christian -0.140 -0.204 0.064 -0.142 -0.205* 0.064 ( 0.147 ) ( 0.116 ) ( 0.130 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Observed net incomes derived function utilizing OLS E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing OLS ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing OLS ( Unexplained ) = P & lt ; 0.01, ** = P & lt ; 0.05, * = P & lt ; 0.1 Table 4 shows that pupils who graduated from public schools earn 30.9 per centum more than their opposite number from private Islam schools. This grounds is strong as the net incomes derived function is statistically important at 1 percent degree of significance. The difference in the explained features contributes to about 82 per centum as the spread is 25.4 per centum. This spread is significance at 1 percent degree of significance. It means that the variables included in the theoretical account could explicate the 82 per centum of net incomes differential between public school and private Islam alumnuss. The difference in unexplained features are 5.5 per centum. However, this consequence is likely non true as the difference is non statistically important. [ ht ] Table 4: The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( Two-Step )Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) aFahmib2-8 Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious -0.754 0.236 -0.990 0.243** 0.151*** 0.09 ( 0.111 ) ( 0.055 ) ( 0.098 ) Private Islam 0.468 0.241 0.057 Sodium Sodium Sodium ( NA ) ( NA ) ( NA ) Private Christian -0.046 -0.226 0.180 -0.104 -0.197 0.093 ( 0.233 ) ( 0.123 ) ( 0.190 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Adjusted net incomes differential utilizing Two-step E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing Two-step ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing Two-step ( Unexplained ) = P & lt ; 0.01, ** = P & lt ; 0.05, * = P & lt ; 0.1 NA = Not Applicable In Table 3 the selectivity variables in private non spiritual and private Christian schools are statistically important. This grounds suggests that ordinary least squares ( OLS ) appraisal every bit good as the net incomes differential decomposition in these two groups would be biased. Table 4 nowadayss the net incomes decomposition utilizing the two-step method. In this tabular array, I do non supply the spread between public and private Islam schools since the coefficients on selectivity variables of both the groups are non statistically important. The net incomes derived function between public school and private non spiritual school is 24.3 per centum and is important at 0.05 degree. The spread is lower than the net incomes difference calculated by OLS appraisal. The net incomes decomposition on OLS appraisal between two groups are 31.8 per centum. Therefore, the inclusion of the selectivity variable in the theoretical account corrects the net incomes spread of 7.5 per centum. Si milar with the net incomes spread between public and private Islam schools, the explained or observed features in the theoretical account contribute to most of the spread. The part of measure effects or ascertained variables to the spread is about 60 per centum and is important at 0.01 significance degree. This part is higher than the OLS appraisal that merely contributes 52 per centum to the spread. The spread on the unseen variable are little and non statistically important. This consequence contradicts Bedi and Garg ‘s decision that the strong selectivity consequence reverses the public and private non-religious net incomes decompositions. I agree that the selectivity consequence corrects the net incomes spread but it does non change by reversal the advantages of public schools over the private non spiritual schools. The net incomes derived function of two-step appraisal between public and private Christian schools corrects the spread estimated by OLS. However, all the differences are non statistically important. Therefore, I can non reason what is the net incomes differences between the two schools since the groundss are likely non true. This undistinguished consequence on net incomes spread may be caused by the little figure of observations in the private Christian school group. The figure of observation in this group is 73 whereas the figure of observations in public school group is 767.5 School Quality IndexsDespite my findings beliing Bedi and Garg ‘s decisions, the placeholders of school quality indexs may bias the cogency of Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes theoretical account[ 7 ]. Alternatively of utilizing standard variables for school quality indexs such as teacher-student ratio, outgo per student, and degree of instruction of instructors, Bedi and Garg used three proxy variabl es: a dummy variable of whether the school has a soil floor ( DIRT FLOOR ) , the length of the school term ( MONTHS ) , and the figure of pupils in the category ( CLASS SIZE ) . The figure of observations that linked to the information of these standard variables for school quality are non equal[ 8 ]. I believe BG ‘s placeholders for school features ‘ variables could hold biased the consequences. Harmonizing to the manual book of IFLS1, DIRT FLOOR, MONTHS, and CLASS SIZE[ 9 ]supply information about the school features last accompanied by respondents. Therefore, some of the informations on these proxy variables will be biased for respondents who attend senior secondary schools. The 1,194 from informations observation set in Bedi and Garg ‘s survey, there are 519 observations that are non junior secondary school. In fact, Bedi and Garg merely focus on the quality of junior secondary schools.6 Missing Data TreatmentI am besides concerned about the losing informations intervention in Bedi and Garg ‘s paper. There are two variables in net incomes equations that have losing values: CLAS_SIZ and MONTH. CLAS_SIZ has 72 losing values whereas MONTH has 55. Bedi and Garg used a traditional attack, the average permutation, to get the better of losing informations on those two variables. Hence, Bedi and Garg replaced the 72 losing values in CLAS_SIZ and MONTH by 36.40461 and by 9.412534. Harmonizing to [ 6 ] average imputation is simple to implement, nevertheless, it has some serious disadvantages. First, average permutation will diminish the discrepancy of the sample as the decrease of the sample will under gauge the true discrepancy. Second, the appraisal of non additive variables can non be estimated systematically. Third, average imputation will falsify the distribution of and form of the imputed variables. [ 1 ] points out that average permutation would be the worst attack when there is big inequality in losing informations for different varia bles. Another traditional attack that is alleged the list-wise or instance omission may be applied in this theoretical account to get the better of losing informations job. However, This attack may give indifferent appraisal if the MCAR premises are met. MCAR or Missing Wholly At Random appears when the chances of losing informations do non depend on any other observed or unobservable variable. However, MCAR seldom happens in household or family study. In the survey about the impact of childbearing on wellbeing utilizing IFLS informations, [ 7 ] argues that the premise of MCAR is non sensible in the survey. Mattei believes that the premise of losing informations mechanism or MAR ( Missing At Random ) is more sensible. To avoid inconsistent prejudices or equivocal consequences, I re-estimated Bedi and Garg ‘s school pick and net incomes derived function utilizing the multiple imputation by chained equations ( MICE ) . Multiple Imputation was originally developed by Rubin ( Rubin1976, Rubin1977 ) and implemented as MICE for general used by [ 12 ] . In STATA, MICE is implemented utilizing mvis or ice[ 10 ]. These STATA ado-files bundle were developed by [ 11 ] . Selectivity Variable in Mean Substitution and Multiple Imputation attackSchool TypeBedi and Garg ( 2000 )Bedi and Garg sampleAverage SubstitutionMouses2-5 t-stat. t-stat. Public -0.089 ( -0.310 ) -0.103 ( -0.360 ) Private Non Religious -0.848** ( -2.384 ) -0.896** ( -2.200 ) Private Islam 0.073 ( 0.120 ) -0.247 ( 0.320 ) Private Christian 0.031 ( 0.272 ) 0.650* ( -1.820 ) [ parity ] * = P & lt ; 0.1, ** = P & lt ; 0.05, *** = P & lt ; 0.01 I created 5 transcripts of imputed sample informations utilizing ice bid. Then, I used mim bid to gauge the polynomial logit and two-step net incomes equation utilizing the five imputed information set. I compared the consequence of utilizing multiple imputation and Bedi and Garg ‘s average permutation in Tables 6, 5, and 6. Table 6 presents the comparing of the selectivity variable of Bedi and Garg ‘s and my appraisal. Then, Tables 5 and 6 compare the OLS and two-step net incomes derived function utilizing individual imputation ( average permutation ) and multiple imputation ( MICE ) . [ ht ] Table 5: The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( OLS )Type ofBedi and Garg ( 2000 ) aFahmibSchoolAverage SubstitutionMultiple Imputation2-8 Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious 0.316 0.162 0.154 0.315*** 0.168*** 0.148** ( 0.034 ) ( 0.021 ) ( 0.030 ) Private Islam 0.311 0.254 0.057 0.314*** 0.251*** 0.055 ( 0.045 ) ( 0.077 ) ( 0.030 ) Private Christian -0.140 -0.204 0.064 -0.119*** -0.191*** 0.072 ( 0.056 ) ( 0.044 ) ( 0.046 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Observed net incomes derived function utilizing OLS E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing OLS ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing OLS ( Unexplained ) = P & lt ; 0.01, ** = P & lt ; 0.05, * = P & lt ; 0.1 Table 6 shows that about all selectivity variables in MICE appraisal have the same mark with Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisal, with merely the private Islam school group beliing to Bedi and Garg ‘s. The coefficient on selectivity variable in private Islam school is -0.247, whereas Bedi and Garg ‘s lambda in the same group is 0.073. The coefficient on lambda in private non-religious and private Christian schools are statistically important. Bedi and Garg point out that the negative coefficient on the selectivity variable in the private non-religious school group reverses the high quality of the public school group to their opposite number from private non spiritual schools. Bedi and Garg province that the net incomes spread between public schools and private non spiritual schools are reversed from 31.6 per centum to -75.4 per centum. However, in MICE appraisal the important negative coefficient on selectivity variable merely reduces the spread from 31.5 per centum to 24.6 per centum as public schools are still superior than private non spiritual school. Furthermore, the spread that is caused by unexplained or unobservable variables alternatively adds a positive 8.8 per centum to the entire spread. Table 5 shows that there is a similarity in net incomes derived function of the private Islam group in Bedi and Garg ‘s and my appraisal. The entire spread in MICE appraisal is 31.4 per centum whereas the explained spread is 25.1 per centum. The discernible variable adds 5.5 per centum to the entire spread, however the coefficient is non important. [ ht ] Table 6: The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( Two-Step )Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) aFahmib2-8 Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious -0.754 0.236 -0.990 0.246*** 0.158*** 0.088*** ( 0.045 ) ( 0.022 ) ( 0.039 ) Private Islam 0.468 0.241 0.057 Sodium Sodium Sodium ( NA ) ( NA ) ( NA ) Private Christian -0.046 -0.226 0.180 -0.071 -0.180*** 0.109 ( 0.092 ) ( 0.047 ) ( 0.073 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Observed net incomes differential utilizing two-step E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing two-step ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing two-step ( Unexplained ) ` = P & lt ; 0.01, ** = P & lt ; 0.05, * = P & lt ; 0.17 DecisionUsing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations, new sample informations, Jann ‘s selmlog and Oaxaca, and multiple imputation attack, I found the contradictory consequence to Bedi2000. I found that the important negative choice variable in private non spiritual schools does non change by reversal the high quality of public schools over private non spiritual schools. I found grounds that public school alumnuss earn more than private school alumnuss. Bedi and Garg used the traditional average permutation to get the better of the losing information. This individual imputation attack is non appropriate and may bias the consequences. Using the up-to-date MICE ( multiple imputation by chained equations ) to handle the losing value, I found the public school alumnuss have higher net incomes than private non spiritual alumnuss. The negative coefficient on the selectivity variable does non change by reversal the high quality of public schools. The usage of some placeholders as school quality indexs in Bedi and Garg ‘s gaining theoretical account may besides bias the consequences. Bedi and Garg used three proxy variables that explain the status of last school attended. Since some of the respondents attended senior or higher instruction, hence, it may bias the cogency of the theoretical account.Mentions[ 1 ] Acock, A.C. Working with losing values. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67 ( 4 ) :1012 — 1028, 2005. [ 2 ] Bedi, Arjun S. and Garg, Ashish. The effectivity of private versus public schools: the instance of Indonesia. Journal of Development Economics, 61, issue 2:463-494, 2000. [ 3 ] Bourguignon, FranAA §ois and Fournier, Martin and Gurgand, Marc. Selection Bias Corrections Based on The Multinomial Logit Model: Monte Carlo Comparisons. Journal of Economic Surveys, 21 ( 1 ) :174-205, 2007. [ 4 ] Ben Jann. A Stata execution of the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition. ETH Zurich Sociology Working Papers, 5, ETH Zurich, Chair of Sociology, 2008. [ 5 ] Lee, L. F. Generalized econometric theoretical accounts with selectivity. Econometrica, 51:507, 1983. [ 6 ] Little, R.J.A. and Rubin, D.B. Statistical analysis with losing informations. Wiley New York, 1987. [ 7 ] Mattei, A. Estimating and utilizing leaning mark in presence of losing background informations: an application to measure the impact of childbearing on wellbeing. Statistical Methods and Applications, 18 ( 2 ) :257 — 273, 2009. [ 8 ] Newhouse, David and Beegle, Kathleen. The consequence of school type on academic accomplishment – Evidence from Indonesia. Journal of Human Resources, 41 ( 3 ) :529-557, 2006. [ 9 ] Peterson, Christine E. Documentation for IFLS1-RR: Revised and Restructured 1993 Indonesian Family Life Survey Data, Wave 1. Technical study, RAND, 2000. [ 10 ] Cordelia W. Reimers. Labor Market Discrimination Against Hispanic and Black Men. The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 65 ( No. 4 ) : pp. 570-579, 1983. [ 11 ] Royston, P. Multiple imputation of losing values: update. Stata Journal, 5 ( 2 ) :188 — 201, 2005. [ 12 ] Van Buuren, S. and Oudshoom, CGM. MICE: multivariate imputation by chained equations. web. inter. nl. net/users/S. new wave. Buuren/mi, 2000. [ 13 ] Williams, R. MFX2: Stata faculty to heighten mfx bid for obtaining fringy effects or snaps after appraisal. Statistical Software Components, 2006. Appendix

Final Case Study

No â€Å"l† In Team Team members: Jazzmen Robinson, ROR Rousakis, Antenatal Karma, Allen Wang MGM 300 – Team Dynamics and Managerial Analysis Golden Gate University Case Overview The case looks at a company called Support. Com that specializes in technology support. The company Is roughly 1 1 years old and provides other companies, such as Compact, technical support to their customers with purchased products.All employees of the company work remotely from home, while the corporate location as a large office in Redwood City. Support. Com irritates that it is no longer a startup company, however, in many ways the maturity of its administration points otherwise. Jazzmen Robinson, a 2013 graduate from USAF with a background in Communication Studies (also a team member of No â€Å"l† In Team), experienced the low-level administrative abilities in Support. Coma's human resources department. She was hired in as a Temporary Contract Recruiting Coordinator in the fall of 2013.From Cayman's initial perspective, the HER team appeared to be functioning Just fine, but this was definitely not the case as time revealed. The HER Director, by the name of Erik, was the mall cause of many problems that manifested In the department. Erik was employed for 7 years with the company, several of those years as the Director of HER. Erik had a background In Nonverbal Communication, as well as many years of experience in HER. Nonetheless, her inabilities to lead the HER team became quite